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Terminology Dispute over the definition of spirits in the early modern period is an issue central to this paper. Spirits were labelled differently depending on geography, education and religious perspective, and categories of spirit overlapped considerably. This is vividly illustrated in some witchcraft trials, most notably those from Scotland. The dittays from the trial of Orkney witch Elspeth Reoch in 1616 describe how Elspeth claimed that a "blak man cam to her ... And callit him selff ane farie man quha wes sumtyme her kinsman callit Johne Stewart quha wes slane be Mc Ky at the doun going of the soone." Elspeth's interrogators obviously did not find her definition of Johne Stewart (fairy man or ghost) sufficient, for the dittay later reads "she confest the devell quhilk she callis the farie man lay with hir" (Black and Thomas 1903, 113-4. My italics). Similarly complex seems the identity of the spirit allegedly encountered by a man tried in Aberdeen in 1598. The trial dittays record that: Thow confessis that the Devill, thy maister, quhom thow termes Christsonday, and supponis to be ane engell, and Goddis godsone, albeit he hes a thraw by God, and swyis to the Quene of Elphen, is rasit be the speking of the word Benedicte (Stuart 1841, 120). The pivotal definitions used in this paper i.e. "familiar," "devil," and "fairy" are general and simplistic in such a context, however a working terminology is needed. The term "familiar" was used in the period to both denote the witch's demonic spirit and, in a more general sense, personal helping spirits, often defined as fairies. For the purposes of this paper, however, the term "familiar" will refer only to the "witch's familiar," often termed "a devil" or "the Devil" in witchcraft trial records and elite writings and will include the familiar in both human and animal form, as found in both England and Scotland. The term "a/the devil" will be employed in the strictly theological sense (that is, wholly malicious spirit identified as, or in the service of, Satan). The comprehensive term "fairy" can only be employed in a very general sense, but, following Katharine Briggs (1976) specific reference will be made to fairy "hobmen" (that is, a wide range of essentially solitary spirits known variously as hobgoblins, boggarts, brownies, hobs, lobs and so on, which nonetheless share basic characteristics and can be loosely considered a type). To denote the popular magical practitioners of the period who were known to communicate with the fairies, the term "cunning man/woman" will be used, although such people could be known under a variety of other titles such as "seer," "conjurer," "wise man/woman," and so on. The terms "cunning person" and "witch" will be predominantly used in the feminine to reflect the gender emphasis of the sources used. Sources There are many references to familiar belief in trial records and demonological texts. Contemporary references to fairy belief, however, are less common. The Secret Common-Wealth of Elves, Fauns and Fairies, compiled at the end of the seventeenth century (see Sanderson 1976), provides us with the only comprehensive discussion specifically devoted to fairy belief, otherwise snippets are to be found in a wide range of elite scholarly writings and literature. Other sources of fairy beliefs are the records from trials for magical practices, most notably Scottish witchcraft trials. All written sources present problems when trying to isolate popular fairy belief, for they all, to a greater or lesser degree, reflect the prejudices of their educated authors and must therefore be treated with caution. It is possible to argue, however, that some confessions for witchcraft contain the most authentic (that is, closest to first-hand) examples of popular fairy belief. Because the prosecutors had no vested interest in a spirit being called a fairy, in the significant minority of witches' confessions where fairies are mentioned directly we can hazard that the references came from the witches themselves. Many other trial records evidently contain allusions to fairies which have been cloaked with demonological definition, however only those which contain direct references to fairies will be used as evidence of popular fairy belief. [4 |
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